The Behavioral Perspective And The Biological Perspective

Psychology is made up of many perspectives, such as, behavioural, biological, cognitive, social, humanistic and finally, psychodynamic. This essay will focus on the behavioural perspective and the biological perspective. According to J Walker (2012) the behavioural perspective is based on behaviourism and is the study of observing behaviour when in certain contexts and events. The biological perspective however, explains behaviour by focusing on the function of the nervous system, genes and the brain. Behaviourists regard behaviour has a response and stimulus which is determined by the environment one lives in. With this reductionist idea, it is therefore easy for behaviourists to control experiments. Behaviourists carry out experiments with control over variables, precise measurements objectivity and observability, resulting in very reliable results. However, some critics may argue that behaviour is studied under artificial conditions which do not match real life environments, resulting in low ecological validity. Furthermore, another strength of this approach is that all three of its theories, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory have succeeded when applied to its studies. For instance, classical conditioning is when new behaviours maybe acquired through association between an environmental stimulus and a neutral stimulus. An example of this is Watson’s little Albert experiment (1920) where the neutral stimulus (white rat) andShow MoreRe latedPerspectives of Psychology1141 Words   |  5 PagesPerspectives of Psychology Psychology can be defined as the systematic study of mental processes, couple with behaviors, and experiences (Kalat, 2011). There are many ways in examining, mental processes and behaviors among people, and therefore psychologist uses different perspectives to understand how human beings, think, act, and behave. Some psychologist uses one perspective to analyze behaviors, and other uses a multidimensional approach. Carter Seifert (2013) identified 7 major perspectivesRead MoreThe Root Cause of Depression: Biological, Cognitive-Behavioral, or Both?1509 Words   |  7 Pagessupport the cognitive-behavioral perspective believe depression results from faulty thinking associated with low self-esteem or learned helplessness, as well as environmental influences such as the loss of a loved one or a job. Whereas, those who support the biological perspective believe depression results from the genes a person inherits, chemical imbalances that change the functions of the brain, as well a s damage to the anatomy of the brain. In addition to these two perspectives, some believe thatRead MoreHumanistic Perspective and Addiction Essay1420 Words   |  6 PagesTia Gardner September 21, 2012 Humanistic Perspective and Addiction There are several theories of addiction. All of them are imperfect. All are partial explanations. It is for this reason that it is important to be aware of and question addiction theories. One contemporary psychoanalytical view of substance abuse is that it is a defense against anxiety (Thombs D 2006). Addicts often abuse alcohol and other substances to guard against anxiety and other painfulRead MoreContemporary Approaches Of Psychology And How They Interpret Drug Use897 Words   |  4 Pagescontemporary approaches or theories in psychology include Biological, Behavioral Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive, Evolutionary, Sociocultural. These seven contemporary approaches allow us to interpret the behavior of individuals. Each perspective makes certain assumptions about human behavior. For this analysis we will review the behavioral and sociocultural approaches in psychology and compare how they interpret drug use. THe Behavioral perspective believes that our behavior is the result of the environmentRead MoreUnderstanding General Anxiety Disorder And Cognitive Behavioral Therapy1616 Words   |  7 PagesNina Haber Understanding General Anxiety Disorder and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Nina Haber Hunter College, The City University of New York As many as 4% of the US population have symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in any given year, and ~6% at some time during their lives (Comer 2004.) This disorder is a personality disorder that literally takes over someone’s life. It interferes with social, occupational, and other areas of important daily functioning. In orderRead MoreThe Question in the Origins of Psychology is What Drives Us and Why722 Words   |  3 PagesPsychoanalysis was developed as both a theory and a therapy that inspired psychologists to come to develop other psychodynamic theories. (Mcleod) There are seven major perspectives of modern psychology; psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural. (Feist and Rosenberg) Behavioral psychology was founded by John B. Watson who believed that conditioning explains how behaviors are a result of observable stimuli. Much of the research done in this fieldRead MorePsychology : Theory Of Psychology1637 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to Psychology Module 1. Explain how a person committed to each of the following contemporary perspectives would explain human aggression. a. Psychodynamic: A person committed to psychodynamics would see that human functions are based on the interaction of drives and forces within the unconscious mind of a person. This influences different structures of the personality of the person as well. In addition, a person that is committed to psychodynamics would believe that the fundamentalRead MoreHistorical Perspectives of Abnormal Psychology1320 Words   |  6 PagesHistorical Perspectives of Abnormal Psychology Susan Hardin University of Phoenix Abnormal Psychology PSY/410 Krisit Lane, Ph.D. October 25, 2011 Historical Perspectives of Abnormal Psychology Historical perspectives of abnormal psychology sounds complicated, mainly due to the differing definitions, or interpretations, of what is considered abnormal. Identifying someone at work or in a social situation who appears to be behaving abnormally is easier to spot than it is to define theRead MoreJohn Locke And Locke s Views On Nature Nurture1629 Words   |  7 Pagesliving on land instead of water like a turtle, in order to survive and reproduce and let those traits pass to ascendants. Thanks to Darwin, the natural selection concluded the â€Å"nature† part of the nature-nurture issue also emerged the psychological perspective called evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology is the study of the evolution of the behavior and mind. As of Charles Darwin’s analyzation of that certain species behavior, he would be an evolutionary psychologist. Just because Darwin’sRead MoreStructuralism And The Development Of Psychology874 Words   |  4 Pagesa) s tructuralism- early school of psychology that used introspection to study the structure of the human mind (Edward B. Titchener) functionalism- from an evolutionary process, a school of psychology is focused on how mental and behavioral processes function Behavioral- an objective form of science that studies behavior without reference to mental process b) Gestalt- Max Wertheimer sought to explain perceptions in terms of results rather than by analyzing their constituents c)Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic-Sigmund

Effects of Gun Control Essay example - 1723 Words

It is impossible not to open a newspaper, watch the television, or listen to the radio with out hearing about some type of gun violence. Perhaps the main reason for such high gun violence is that guns are so plentiful in the Unites States. In fact, there are sixty five million handguns in America (The `facts about Guns). These guns contribute to an annual medical cost of fourteen billion dollars, which is spent solely on treating gun victims (Handguns in America). Not surprisingly, handguns are the cause of eighty percent of homicides, seventy percent of suicides, and almost every accidental shooting (Youth and Violence). Handgun violence is a problem that is easy for everyone to see. How to solve this predicament is another†¦show more content†¦This strategy is costly and unfair. Who is to determine how much a person is to be paid for their guns? A method such as this one will not only have an astonishing cost, but it also discriminates. Those who are in favor of o utlawing all handguns assume that everyone misuses or has the aptitude to misuse the gun. For gun collectors, this proposition takes away their hobby. Merchants and people in jobs with high risks of being robbed would also be discriminated against by not allowing the use of handguns as means of protection, which could make them vulnerable. For example, if a gas station cashier is being robbed and the robber plans on killing the cashier, the chances of the police making it to the scene in time to save the cashiers life is very slim. On the other hand, if the cashier had a handgun, then he or she could defend him or herself. For reasons such as this, merchants and people in high risk jobs may defy a law completely outlawing handguns because a handgun could save their life. The idea of completely outlawing handguns does not solve the problem of handgun violence. In fact, this idea would persuade some people to defy the law and keep their gun or guns for safety or for malicious intentions. One in five Americans own a handgun (Guns In America). The chances that all of these people will give up their guns, when they could hide them and likely never get caught, is very slim. The idea of completely outlawing handguns is a tacticShow MoreRelatedGuns And Their Effect On Gun Control962 Words   |  4 PagesGuns and the ability to use them have been under attack in the United States and many other places throughout the World. There are groups of people that believe that as long as we have the right to bear arms that many unprotected people will lose their lives due to gun violence. There are many trends that come with gun violence and where these mass shooting occur, but a main one is that when a place legally prohibits carrying a weapon then that is where the most gun violence happens. Where guns areRead MoreEffects of Gun Control1158 Words   |  5 PagesThere are thousands of people that own guns in the United States. People have owned guns for the entire duration of American history. Even pre-dating the formation of the country, there were the Massachusetts minutemen who owned their own firearms and used them to defend themselves against oppression. Many lawmakers now want to go against these principles of allowing gun ownership for civilians (Dreier 92). They want to challenge the freedoms that have built the United States into the nation thatRead MoreThe Ultimate Effect Of Gun Control994 Words   |  4 Pages Gun control has become an ever growing topic that has taken both opinionated and debated standpoints throughout various places such as courtrooms, widespread media influence and even discussions at a dinner table. Gun control can be defined as; laws or policies that regulate the manufacture, sale, transfer, possession, modification, or use of firearms. The underlying question is what is the ultimate effect of gun control? Does it reduce the amount of crimes that occur? Or does the increase in regulationRead MoreCause And Effect Of Gun Control1384 Words   |  6 PagesThere are an abundance of causes and effects in the way guns are used, purchased, and sold – legally or illegally. A few causes include how guns are kept (with a safety and locked away or not), and in the way guns are obtained. The effects of these acts are, peoples state of mind, and the criticisms law enforcement may receive. Thought of as technical and firm, the laws about guns can easily be bypassed by crimin als and people who are not in the right frame of mind. In the legal and illegal use ofRead MoreThe Effects Of The Weapons Effect On Gun Control934 Words   |  4 PagesHow does aggression relate to gun ownership/use? Does aggression actually have an effect on gun control? There have been many studies done that says it does. But, the question is, does everyone with a gun have to take it out with their aggression. Not everyone does take it out but there is a great amount of people that actually do. I am going to talk about the studies that have been done and how they impact society. Currently, in the United States we have a lot of violence going on. Is it becauseRead MoreThe Effects Of Gun Control On America Essay1492 Words   |  6 PagesThe Effect of Gun Control on America Guns have been prevalent in the United State’s culture for hundreds of years. Firearms have been, and still are being used for hunting, protection and even sport. In fact, if it was not for the help of firearms, we would not be graced with the many freedoms we have today. Currently, owning and obtaining a firearm is a controversial topic that sparks heavy emotions. Many people argue for eliminating all guns, and applying heavier regulations to prevent tragicRead MoreNegative Effects Of Gun Control954 Words   |  4 PagesNegative Effects of Gun Control The recent terrorist situations in America could have turned out differently if the victims had been armed. There have been too many terrorist situations lately in America. Many people who are not in favor of gun rights want to make it more difficult or even impossible for citizens to purchase weapons. When stricter gun control is enforced, then citizens may not be able to protect themselves. We need to find a way to prevent gun related tragedies, but that doesRead MoreGun Control And Its Effect On The Country1310 Words   |  6 Pagesbut guns are the instrument of death. Gun control is necessary, and delay means more death and horror† (BrainyQuote, n.d.). Many people say that gun control will not affect violence rates in a country. Also, they say that if everyone has a gun, then that will stop mass massacres. The people who believe that gun control is not needed are wrong. This is because gun control has been proven to improve the safety of a country. For example, In Aust ralia and Britain reduced violence caused by guns by puttingRead MoreGun Control And Its Effect On Acquiring Firearms1623 Words   |  7 PagesNSW, therefore leading to an increase in guns, cause a reduction in crime? Gun control and restrictions on acquiring firearms has been a topic that has been disputed heavily in NSW since the 1980s. Similar to various other nations, Australia has seen a number of high profile shootings, resulting in a tightening of gun control laws. One may believe by instinct that relaxing current restrictions on acquiring firearms would lead to more crime, as more guns are readily available. This paper will exploreRead MoreThe Effects Of Gun Control On The United States Essay1742 Words   |  7 PagesGun control has become a very important topic within the United States after the past couple of months. There have been many issues that have occurred to make people think that banning guns is something we need to invest in, even though that just would not be the greatest option. There are many parts to winning a debate on gun control. One always needs to be sure to view both sides of the issue, look at the causes and the effects of the issue, and being sure one has enough f acts and statistics to

Edgar Allan Poe Analaysis Free Essays

Isaiah Mutakabbir Dille Senior English 2 23, March, 2013 Edgar Allan Poe Literary Analysis Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809, Massachusetts. Poe died at the age of 40. The cause of his death is undetermined and has been attributed to alcohol, drugs, cholera, rabies, and other agents. We will write a custom essay sample on Edgar Allan Poe Analaysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now He is most known for his poems and short stories such as The Raven, Tell-Tale Heart, and The Black Cat. Poe was one of the early American practitioners of the short story and a progenitor of detective fiction and crime fiction. Poe used many different forms of figurative language in his poems but the one I find as his best and most used is his use of symbolism. Poe’s use of this literary element is seen all throughout his works. In one of his greatest poems, The Raven, symbolism is used very many times. Such as the main symbol in the poem which is a raven. It symbolizes never ending and mournful remembrance. Many others also agree that symbolism is Poe’s greatest form of figurative language is his use of symbolism. Such as Tyler G. who said that Poe â€Å"masters it in his every work. He also said that â€Å"in The Pit and the Pendulum, the whole story symbolizes the dark and rough time in the torture chambers. † Another critic named Christoffer Hallqvist agrees and says that â€Å"Poe uses several symbols to take the poem to a higher level. † In his online essay written about Poe’s use of figurative elements he is also quoted saying that Poe’s â€Å"way of interp reting signs that do not bear a real meaning, is one of the most profound impulses of human nature. † Though many believe that symbolism is Poe’s greatest literary element others believe that it is his use of foreshadowing that should be known as his best element. In an article on 123helpme. com it was written that Poe’s â€Å"most common literary element used †¦throughout many of his works is foreshadowing. † The article also stated that When Fortunato states, â€Å"I shall not die of a mere cough†, Monstressor enthusiastically agrees with him. If you read into this meaning behind this it is direct foreshadowing that he will not die of a mere cough, but starvation and dehydration caused by Monstressor burying him in a wall will be what kills him. Though this is a good example of Poe’s use of figurative language I still believe that it s his use of symbolism that should be accredited with being his most and greatest used literary element. Poe overall is one of the post modern pioneers of symbolism. Works Cited Magill’s Survey of American Literature, Revised Edition, September 2006, p1, 10p â€Å"Edgar Allan Poe and His Use of Literary Devices. †Ã‚  Teen Ink. N. p. , n. d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.  "Edgar Allan Poe. †Ã‚  A Brief Biography of including Selected Works to Read Online. N. p. , n. d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. â€Å"Literary Elements Used by Poe :: Essays Research Papers. †Ã‚  Literary Elements Used by Poe :: Essays Research Papers. N. p. , n. d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. How to cite Edgar Allan Poe Analaysis, Essay examples

Network Security RSA Cipher Demonstration

Question: Discuss about theNetwork SecurityforRSA Cipher Demonstration. Answer: Introduction: The following research report showcases the process of providing internet security implementation using RSA Cipher Algorithm. It is enriched with overview, demonstration, summary and conclusion. Overview: According to Kahate (2013), internet can be refereed as network of different networks. Each computer of this network is identified as a unique entity by its IP address. It is provided by special server system called DNS (Domain Name Server). Interconnected computer uses the IP to exchange message data among themselves. Providing network security, we refer to provide security to the messages that get exchanged between the networks for communication. Demonstration: Running a RSA Cipher Demonstration RSA is basically an algorithm which provides security to different message transmission, inter network connection authentication, and establish trust connections between two entities (Ciampa 2012). The name RSA stands after the three inventors Rivest, Shamir and Adleman. It is the first public key algorithm developed to provide network security. RSA Algorithm Work Process RSA cipher algorithm is developed on symmetric public key encryption mechanism. In symmetric public key encryption process, the sender sends message to the information channel by encrypting the text with the public key. After encryption the message is no longer can be retrieved other than decrypting it with the same public key used for encryption (Pierso and DeHaan 2015). Figure 1: Symmetric Key encryption/decryption model Source: (As created by author) After encryption is complete the message is sent to the internet channel for transmission. There can be many attacks possible in the internet channel such as man in the middle attack, message interception by any third party untrusted sources etc. If the message was not encrypted, there was very high possibility that the attacker can get the message and modify it. On the other hand, as the message is now encrypted using cipher key, it is very tough for the attacker to decrypt the message without knowing the encryption key. This is how RSA authentication avoids different man in the middle attacks and restores authenticity of the data (Knapp and Langill 2014). The encrypted data then travels through the internet channel to its destination. After reaching the destination, several validations are done before the decryption process. Following are the basic checks that take place before decryption process, Timestamp Validation Every RSA token (cipher key) is valid for 60 seconds. The timestamp of the RSA request message cannot be more than 60 seconds old. Source Validation The requested source system is also validated to establish a trust connection. Message Content Type Validation Content and the format of the request also need to be of specific format for authentication. After the above steps are cleared decryption process starts in the recipient end. RSA algorithm follows the symmetric public key encryption/decryption method. The decryption key is also available in the recipient end (same as the encryption key valid for 60 seconds). Once the decryption is completed, the original message can be retrieved. Authenticity of the retrieved message is performed in the recipient end. Figure2: RSA Public key encryption/decryption model Source: (As created by author) Summary and Conclusion: Form the above analysis, it can be inferred the following points RSA algorithm is the first symmetric public key algorithm introduced to validate authenticity of the message. It is written in JavaScript language. The cipher key is unique secure key known as RSA token. Authenticity in both sender and recipient is done based on encryption/decryption process using the RSA token. Reference List: Ciampa, M., 2012.Security+ guide to network security fundamentals. Cengage Learning. Kahate, A. 2013. Cryptography and network security. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Knapp, E.D. and Langill, J.T., 2014.Industrial Network Security: Securing critical infrastructure networks for smart grid, SCADA, and other Industrial Control Systems. Syngress. Pierson, G. and DeHaan, J., Iovation, Inc., 2015.Network security and fraud detection system and method. U.S. Patent 9,203,837.

Paraphrasing free essay sample

For example: Original text: In Higher education today the ability to become an independent learner is crucial (Payne and Whittaker, 2006) Paraphrase: Payne and Whittaker (2006) argue that becoming an independent learner is one of the most important skills at University Points which help you to paraphrase * Make sure you understand the original text Find the important ideas (words and phrases) and mark them or highlight them in some way * Find synonyms or alternative phrases for those words * Change the structure of the text by looking at the relationship between the words and expressing them in a different way (for example by changing the word order) * Make sure that you have not copied any of the original text * Make sure that the meaning is the same as the original text * Make sure you have written in your writing style * Make sure you acknowledge other peoples ideas by referencing correctly Paraphrasing exercises Individually, read through Text 1 below. We will write a custom essay sample on Paraphrasing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In groups work through Texts 2 and 3 and decide which of those texts represents a better paraphrase of text 1 Text 1 Smith (1993) identified classroom location as having a powerful impact on the quality of students learning.Her studies concerned large, often overcrowded English Language classes in Pakistan where the delivery of teaching was in a lecture style format, with the teacher delivering the lesson from the front. As a consequence, classroom zones were created whereby students in the front zone tended to receive more teacher attention than students sitting at the back of the classroom. It was also found that teachers often tended to have negative perceptions of students in the back zone. As a result, student motivation was also negatively affected Text 2 Many large classrooms in Pakistan are overcrowded (Smith 1 993) and in many English language classes teachers tend to deliver their lessons in a lecture style format. This creates zones in the classroom and those students in the back zone have difficulties following lessons. Furthermore, the students in the front zone tend to pay more attention to the teacher than those students at the back. As a consequence, the teachers attention has to focus ore on the students at the back to ensure that they keep up with the lessons. Text 3 Studies (Smith 1993) into English language teaching of large class sizes in Pakistan found that where classes were often overcrowded, students location in a classroom had a strong influence on way they learn. In such classes where the teacher taught from the front of the class, distinct areas in the classroom were created.As a result, students sitting in the front of the class received more attention than those sitting at the back. These studies also revealed that teachers in these situations were inclined to think in a negative ay about the students located at the back of the classroom, and that had a negative effect on th eir motivation. Exercise Individually, write paraphrases of the following passages: There is growing evidence that music can cause physical changes to the body which can improve our health. In the Welcome Trust study, which took place over three years at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital in London, patients were asked to listen to musical performances.

Two Lives Between Schools Professor Ramos Blog

Two Lives Between Schools My story began when I was enrolled in a Catholic grade school, or private school, at the age of five. At that point, I was a part of a huge flock of students that consisted of different two races and ethnicities that were present in different class grades. I noticed that as I started experiencing diversity in during my years in Kindergarten and first grade. In Kindergarten, I sat with different students who come from different races and ethnicities. There were some students that were of Hispanic descent, some were of Caucasian descent, a couple of African-American students, and there were a couple of students that were of Filipino descent. This was the case until everything changed for me in the middle of my year in first grade. At that time, I was being bullied by this one kid that was in the same class I was in and he made me look like I had behavioral problems in front of the teachers. Even worse, my first grade teacher and the principal thought I was the problem child even though I was not at fault. I remember the words of the principal that made my parents switch me to a different school. Those words of that principal that was said to my parents were, â€Å"I think your son has autism.† Since that happened, my parents were offended by that notion and later proved to them that I did not have behavioral problems. In the end, they switched me to a Christian grade school where I later experienced different side of diversity. As my six year-old self began my first time in a Christian grade school, I soon adapted with the fresh, and friendlier faces of students and teachers. It was then that understood my pain   from my time in private school. For about six years, I was with the same students I met since the middle of my first grade since I began my education in a Christian grade school who were in the same class I was in. Moreover, I even met new students that became new additions to our classes and became friends with them. The diversity among my classmates was a little different from my classmates from private school. My class was a mix of mostly Caucasian students, a couple of African-American students, some students that were of Hispanic descent, and some students that were of Asian descent - specifically Filipino and Korean. Aside from the diversity in my school being based on race, color, and ethnicity, the only predicament in the diversity of that school was religion. In other words, my Catholic faith conflicted with their Christian faith. As a matter of fact, I thought my religious faith was the same as a Christian faith even though both were different. At one point, they noticed a side of my Catholic faith when I had ashes on my forehead. That day when that happened was Ash Wednesday. Some of them asked me, â€Å"Joseph. What is that on your forehead?† I told them, â€Å"Today is Ash Wednesday. I had to get my ashes.† Since that moment, I started to notice the differences between the Catholic and Christian faiths. To some, they were confused about what kind of religion I worshipped.   All was well until in the middle of my sixth grade year. At that time, I had a discrepancy with my teacher over some unintended joke my eleven-year-old self made. Since that incident, my parents thought that my teacher was at fault and later moved me back to private grade school. At that point, I thought to myself: it’s just gonna be like private school again. When I began private school, I was now eleven years old - one month before turning twelve years old - and I started my life in private school again. I was along with a different group of faces that I have never seen or met in my class. The class was mostly of Hispanic descent, some were Filipino, and, interestingly, there was one Native American girl whom I later developed a crush on before the end of my year in sixth grade. Since then, I got along with my class and my teachers very well. There were some jokes in bad taste, but I made resolutions with my classmates and we got along very well. For that friendship I had with that one girl I had a crush on, we were good friends. But the ease of friendships in private grade school was more complicated when we were in high school.  I was fourteen years old when I started my first year in a Catholic high school. The sense of diversity in race, ethnicity, and religion was and felt the same as I adapted along with the classmates in the same year I’m in. But as the years passed by until the end of my high school years, some of the friendships I’ve had with some students just died down. That was mostly because of the fact that there were more interesting faces that stood out to my classmates from private grade school. The only friendships I’ve had during my time in high school grew from a few people who were in the second private grade school I went to and from some students who came from different high schools and were friendly with me. Since then, I was with the true friends I knew in my grade level until the end of my senior year. I was eighteen when I graduated from high school and, since then, most of the classmates I was acquainted with and the true friends I knew were off to different colleges or off doing their own thing. For twelve years, my journey in religious education has been quite a ride. From principals being insensitive to my churlish self, to experiencing what it feels like to be in a different faith in a public Christian school, and to being with different faces after switching back to private school, I had gone through a wild ride during my religious education. What I liked the most out of this was having a close friendship with that one girl I had a crush on during my sixth and seventh grade years. Moreover, I also liked the fact that my perspective of diversity has been broadened from the students and teachers I’ve meet in the schools I went to. On the contrary, what I did not like the most was that principal in the first private school I went to seeing me as a problem child. But as time passed by, I later learned and concluded that diversity yields good and bad results. Specifically, I would make friendships with different people because of the different faiths, interests, cultur es, and other background factors that I share or differentiate. Furthermore, I learned and experienced the friendships I made with people of different races and ethnicities because of the interests that the people and I share, differentiate, or favor between one another.  

Decision making in business Scholarship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10250 words

Decision making in business - Scholarship Essay Example Such studies indicated that successful organisations exhibited all of Indeed, as Drucker (2003) contends, decision-making is of such unique importance to organisations that the performance of managers and executive is largely, although not exclusively, evaluated in accordance with their decision-making capacities and abilities. While not intending to obscure the many other responsibilities assigned to managers or undermine the importance of any, the aforementioned is intended to highlight the fact that decision-making is, by far, one of the most important of the many managerial responsibilities. The significance of managerial decision-making stems from the fact that decisions ultimately influence and alter both management itself and the organisational as a whole. Accordingly, managerial decision-making functions as the criteria for the evaluation of management performance and for the determination of the likelihood of an organisation are satisfying its strategic objectives (Agarwal & Malloy, 2000; Lippitt, 2003). In order to further clarify this, and in so doing, defend and support the contention that decision-making is the most important of the managerial/leadership responsibilities, the componential and definitional elements of decision making shall now be analysed. The decision-making process consists of six primary elements that are the functions of decision making in implementing manage... A set cycle is completed once the objective that initiates this cycle is attained. Searching for alternatives is the second primary element. Searching consists of scanning both internal and external environment for pertinent information that to identify and develop a set of options for the likelihood of fulfilling the objective. Third is comparing and evaluating alternatives by using applicable techniques and criteria relevant to the objectives. The fourth primary element is the act of choice, in which a selection is made by the decision maker for a specific course of action from the various options and scenarios compared. Implementing the decision is the fifth primary element. In this element, a transformation of the decision from an abstract conceptual framework to operational reality occurs. Finally, the sixth primary element is follow-up and control, which ensures that the outcome of the implemented decision is compatible and in balance with the managerial objective starting the whole process. Figure 1: Managerial Decision-Making Process Several critical areas comprise the dimensions of management decision making (Harrison & Pelletier, 2000): organization, level, significance, rationality, strategy, outcome, and uncertainty. Some experts included intuition as an additional dimension featured in the decision-making process (Miller & Ireland, 2005). Each separate dimension and all dimensions combined affect how managers assume decision making responsibility and also how others assess whether a manager is being responsible. All dimensions have equal importance and significance in their contribution to the evolving and continual managerial decision-making process. Figure 2 highlights the

Social Impact Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Impact - Essay Example In this age of high and advanced technology, people have constantly come to interact with the media in every day of their lives (Farmer, 2001). People are now constantly being flooded with messages, thus the media has emerged as influential on the activities and thoughts of individuals and of the global society as a whole. Usually the message sent is in a variety of forms, including the currently popular short message service, and they are perpetuated by large corporations. Gender inequality: a social impact of new communication technologies Gender inequality is an important social impact that arises out of the use of new communication technology; it has regularly been observed that it increases with the increase in the latter. When one sex subordinates to then other one, then this is referred to as sexism, in most societies of the world female usually subordinate to the male. This not only leads to objectification of the females but also marginalization, as this happening, men incre ase their wealth, privilege, social power and opportunity. Advertisements on televisions and on the internet intensify the myth that the toys used by boys should be those that reflect power and authorities, girls’ toys are usually dolls only. ... There are several theories developed by communication and journalism experts to analyze such perspectives, the analysis of the media, and gender inequality as a social impact of new communication technologies and tools. People are always in continuous battle over power and resources, this is the conflict theory. This theory gives the implied explanation for this increasing and blatant societal bias that is heavily influenced by the media. It is often stated that publishing and broadcasting companies are under the control of a small bunch of individuals; these companies only help to perpetuate only their interests and a few other biased views. This theory points out that unlike men, women do not hold privileged or influential positions of power; this naturally follows that women would be portrayed as naturally weak to so that men increase their control over the society. Conflict theory is further augmented by materialist theory in explaining gender inequality as brought about by new t echnologies in communication (Mooney, 2011). The theory offers a compelling justification of the increasing gender inequality, by using cross cultural information on the exact position of the male and female genders. They define gender inequality as a consequent of the way the society views and holds men and women in an economic structure. These theories offer control and distribution of important resources as critical data in giving out stratification. The roles of the female members of the society is often looked down upon notwithstanding their importance to their society, these are often devalued. Conventional media has stereotypically painted

Criminology Research Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Criminology Research Paper - Essay Example In the previous periods, citizens thought that the introduction of democracy would lead to reduction of abuse of power. However, with democracy, abuse of power is on the verge of increasing. The government crimes can be categorized in to a wide range, depending on the point of view of the citizens and the country of concern. Taking for instance; in Africa land grabbing is considered to be a governmental crime, while in the Western parts of the world, it is the opposite. However, scholars have tried to categorize different government crimes thus, finally coming up a conclusive number. The major ways in which governments abuse their powers include; Most governments tend to use a country’s resources for unintended and unplanned projects. This is a crime that is mainly caused by lack of accountability of the government officials (Grant & Keohane, 2005). The article explains that accountability is so problematic among all leaders globally. Most government officials take advantage o f the power placed upon them to misuse a country’s resources due to lack of accountability. In addition, other leaders use the resources on projects that they claim are meant to help the citizens. However, research shows that they are the key beneficiaries of these projects (Abraham, 2006). This is indeed a crime since; resources used on other projects should be used for the sake of the citizens. For instance, African government officials have been known to use their powers to enrich themselves before the end of their terms of leadership. Government officials also abuse the power rested upon them by coming up with projects that are worth lot of money without even consulting the citizens. This is abuse of power since; the officials take such actions on the basis that no one can question them. This is a case that was clearly manifested in Venezuela in the year 2006. Projects were started but the returns and revenues from the projects were not clearly shown. In addition, the exp enses of the projects were overly stated, giving rise to large figures (Coronel, 2006). The issue of bending and breaking of laws is also a crime committed by the government officials. Most governments in the world have put in place laws that they do not follow themselves. The legal accountability is exceedingly poor in most states because courts do not have a wide general authority over governments. Previously, it has been noted that the courts will only ask the leaders if they have performed their duties well. However, the courts do not follow up to know if the duties have been performed or the officials could be lying sometimes (Grant & Keohane, 2005). Governments have been involved in these crimes and many others such turning a deaf ear to the cries of the poor in the society. While citizens cry out for help with issues such as hunger, unemployment problems and poverty, the government takes no action to control these issues. Most government officials in the world have also been involved in rigging during elections in order to win the elections. This of course is a crime since; they will have attained leadership the wrong way. Again, in such cases the courts will do nothing to punish these leaders since; in most cases they will have no evidence of the crimes committed. Governments have also committed the crime of corruption against the citizens. This is decidedly different from the embezzlement of funds in the country. It involves the use of a country’s money to manipulate people in order to get what they want. For

Creation Of The Work Breakdown Structure Management Essay

Creation Of The Work Breakdown Structure Management Essay Project scope management refers the processes involved in defining and controlling what is included and what is not included in the project. The project team and stakeholders must have the same understanding of what products will be produces as a result of a project and what processes will be used in producing them. In addition, the scope management must be stated clearly, ensure all of the process that the project includes all the work required and only the work required to complete the project successfully. These would express and discuss about the scope of management of this project which is a web-based travel agency system for Samson travels. Basically, the purpose of this manuscript is to provide suggestion and guidelines that are most important in the Scope management plan which are stated categorically below; Creation of The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) The project players will make effort together to develop a Work break down structure (WBS) after it has been put in place Samson travels which are the sponsors would make review of the work break down structure which is also going to be in the presence of the project manager in order to make sure that the all the endeavor necessary to complete the project would be put in place inside the work break down structure. On the other hand, the project team from their own side would also carry an analysis based on the WBS in order to make sure it has comply with the guidelines for creating WBS example; function oriented WBS. In addition, the project team would the project team members would establish the task required to complete each deliverable which will be appraised and agreed by the entire group members and Samson travel agency. The tasks would include the processes, the invention and all associated task. However, all-purpose guideline to follow for determining the level of details that is the lowest level of the WBS ought to on the whole to take no longer time as its supposed to complete the project, moreover, revision of the WBS would also take place at this moment after an approval by the sponsors as considered necessary. Functional Requirements The functional requirements have been defined in the project as to describe or provide a brief explanation to the users as well as the stakeholders on what functionality or services that the online travel system for Samson travels system is expected or capable of providing. The functional requirements consist of important criterias such as the descriptions of the processing that the system is expected to carry out and the details of data that must be held in the system. After having a brief discussion with our team members as well as referring to educational resources such as the Internet, the functional requirements specification for the online travels agency system for Samson travels are as follows: The system should provide schedule searching where the user will be able to search the desired schedule and then book the tickets The system must record all the booking done online by the user The system should store the information entered by the user during new account creation. The system should store the entire users personal information and must provide the capability to the user to update as well as delete account. The system should provide effective security features such as login authentication to validate whether the user is a valid user or not and provide a firewall to avoid possible hacking activities. Non-Functional Requirements The non-functional requirement has been defined as the requirements which are not directly relevant or concerned with the specific functions or features delivered by the system such as response time, reliability, and storage capacity. Similar analysis which is conducted for the functional requirements are also done here which is by referring to educational resources such as the Internet and some books from the library. The non-functional requirements for the ticket-reservation system are as follows: Low FAR In terms of reliability, the FAR or fully known as the Failure Accuracy Rate of the system should be less than 10%. Also, the Samson travels agency system would provide assurance to the user that any potential of system crashing is minimal. Quick response time The Samson Travel agency system would have a quick response time for all the features involved and must make sure that the user doesnt wait for a long time for a particular process to happen. For example, all the process such as login authentication should be done less than 20 seconds. Quick data connectivity There should be quick data connectivity between the system and the database when process such as data retrieval for login authentication is conducted to ensure higher rate of response time and efficiency as well. Security Features The system should have the capacity of protecting or securing data from any invalid access of data from hackers as well as virus protection from viruses such as Trojan horse as well as worms. Usability Requirements Usability requirements is where the developer Samson travels system must ensure that there is good match between the system that is developed and both the users of that system as well as the tasks they will perform when using the system. The usability requirements for the ticket reservation system are as follows: User-friendly One of the major factors in the usability requirements is the user-friendliness of the system. The system must be user-friendly and the user must not have any difficulty in performing certain functions such as Online booking of packages and ticket reservation. Also, if the user-friendliness rate of the system is high then the customer can perform any tasks such in a short period of time. User freedom When the user uses the Samson travels Online traveling agency system, the user must have a sense of control towards the system with the ability to navigate buttons as well as updating their personal profile (for members) without much difficulty and also, the user should be to correct their mistakes, for example, if the user mistakenly enters a different web page which he/she didnt desired, then he/she can go back to their destination page by just clicking the button that links them to that page without the necessity to go the home page again. Project Requirement The requirement of this project is an aim that has got to be met before the entire project process can be carried out effectively and efficiently. However, Project Analyst is one of the basic and primary requirements in terms of the project. They analyze and specify the entire project requirement and make sure the entire process has meet requirement. In addition, in order to complete this exercise the project team needs certain hardware and software which would be listed below: Firstly, the project team needs some sets of computer systems with high specification. Microsoft windows XP professional version 2003 with service pack 2, Intel(R) D CPU 300GHZ, 300 GHZ 512GB RAM Microsoft Windows server This server is a special operating system for a server computer in which the operating system can make best use of the performance of the computer. Microsoft Access Database software This software would be used by the authors in other to provide good data storage and optimum security features. Managing Demand For Changes To Project The demand for to the project scope that may have an important effect on meeting and project requirement be obliged to pursue the formal procedures specified. In addition, demand details must be filled in a form which would be reviewed in order to prevent scope embezzlement. Conclusion Decisively, Samson Traveling agency is a high end modern travel agency, with a unique edge to serving the general public the world as a whole. And from the company study, it is without doubt that the company holds abreast the vision to satisfy their clients exclusively. Based on the research done, and the scope analysis, the author has decided to raise certain issues that could increase the companys image and profit (after all, profit is the initial purpose of every business). The web application proposed is or would be to no detriment, but instead an edge for the company, the web application would solve a couple of impending problems that both the company and its customers are facing today. Consequently, the system will be designed in such a way that users skill will be put into consideration as there are the once using the system at most of the time. But before the design, an analysis will be taken in other to know the level of their performance, so that the system will be a user friendly system with no training will be required. STAFFING PLAN Human Resource Management is based on ideas and techniques developed to enhance worker motivation, productivity and performance. Human resources include all project stakeholders such as the student, project team members and suppliers. The major processes involved in human resources management include: Organization plan, which involves identifying, assigning and document project roles, responsibility and reporting relationships. Staff acquisition, which involves getting the needed personnel assigned to work on the project. Team development, which involves building individual skills or group skills to enhance project performance. Project Human Resource Management includes the processes necessary for organizing and managing the project team (www.skillsoft.com, 2010). In addition, a good human resource management will increase the success rate of a particular project as the people in a project determine the success and failure of organizations and projects. Project Skilled Required For the current project Samson travel agency system, the development team members need certain skills to make this project a success. Below are some of the skills the development team member must acquire:- I. Programming skill The programming skill is needed to build the software. Programming skill is important during the development of the software as most of the job required coding to do the job. II. Designing skill The design of the interface is also important as it must be easy to use, easy to understand and the most important of all is that the interface satisfied the requirement of the client. III. Analyzing skill The analyzing skill is important during the early phase of the project as analyzing the user requirement and the client requirement will make the job easier when designing and easier for the programmer to build the software. IV. Testing skills The tester must understand the quality criteria and standards that the software objectives should meet and will be measured against. The tester must test the software for functionality, software output, reliability, user acceptance testing, and etc. The tester must also test the software to see that the software meet the requirement of the client and the end user. V. Communication skill The team member must have this communication skill as when team members communicate with each other, the tension between them will be reduced significantly and the chance of success will increase. This is a skill that the project manager must acquire. VI. Co-operating skill The team member must help each other for the success of this project. It is inevitable for each member to face certain problems during the project. VII. Leadership skill The project manager must have high leadership skill as he is the person who oversees the whole project and the one responsible for the entire project. He must be able to manage the entire team member and giving them work. VIII. Documentation and presenting skill The presentation of the software to the client and end user is very important as a good presentation will give them a good first impression of the software and that will increase the satisfaction of the client toward the software. A proper documentation with proper format is also important as they will introduce the product and also included the user manual that clearly indicate how to use the software. Project Team Structure and Organization Team Members Role and Responsibility Project Manager The project manager of the Samson travels agency system is responsible to deliver the project fully functional and satisfies the requirements of the system. He is expected to have the necessary management skills, problem solving etiquettes, team leadership ability and is responsible for assuring that project goals and objectives are met, quality work is completed on time and within budget, and for making appropriate decisions. The project manager chooses the best team to develop the system and assign each member of the team to his best ability. The task dependency requires the project manager to be able to enforce the time efficient team, in order to avoid any sort of delay. In addition, this document helps identify and clarify roles, responsibilities, and authorities, and should be included in the Project Execution Plan. The project manager is expected to possess following criteria: Understand the basic of analysis, design, coding and testing Financial fundamentals. Expertise in scheduling, productivity, communications and network diagram System Analyst The system analyst of Samson travels system is person who in charge to assist current or potential application users in identifying and describe problems or opportunities that might addressed either by implement a new or change a exist system. The analyst uses business requirements in detail and, where appropriate, prepares functional specification for the system. The system analyst is quite attached to a sumptuous part of the development of the system , and the system analyst here is basically the IT inclined system analysis professionals, who will be handling and at the lowest level, be in charge of reporting progress to the project manager and project team. Systems analyst read and studies the process in and the system requirement. So if there is any problem in the previous system then basically the system analyst has to suggest new ideas in improving the system. His job is to make the designer know what to design. The system analyst will study the organization and the environments to come up with some requirements. Personal Requirements and skills required of the system analyst include: Think creatively Good communication skills Being patient Analytical thinking System Designer In the development of the online system for Samson travels the designers basically is composing of web developers and network administrators will be developing a simple interface and will be managing the network. This interface which is composed of buttons, labels, text fields and images, will be very user friendly to use. Also the designer would draw out some sketches or story-board to simplify the system work flow. Their main action includes: An understanding of the intended audience, client culture, and learning preferences as well as the understanding of human computer factors and interface design. Personal Requirements of the system designer includes: Think creatively Good communication skills Creative thinking Understand the basic of analysis, design, coding and testing System Programmer The programmer for the Samson travel agency system basically the one responsible to develop the coding for the system. He develops the system based on the requirements gathered and based on the system designers perspective. Also to build the software with his specialty and that is programming. He is the person who does the most programming in this development phase. Other than building the software, he have to ensure that other programmer are doing their job and passing up every portion of programming work on time. If there is some functionality problem, bugs or errors, he will be in charge to solve these problems. Tester is the person who will test the system once the system developed in order to get the feedback about the system. It is important for the project group to perform the testing part to make sure the system run without any errors. Personal Requirements of the system programmer includes: Experience Coding expert Being patient The ability to understand the functional side of the system MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES WHICH IS APPLIED TO ALL TEAM MEMBERS Motivation Theory that Applies in Project Team of Samson Travels Agency: Frederick Herzberg The proposed motivation technique for the project team is Herzberg Motivational and Hygiene Factors. Frederick Herzberg wrote several famous books and articles that about motivation. Frederick Herzberg contributed to human relations and motivation two theories of motivation which is Hygiene Theory and Motivation. The first part of the motivation theory involves the hygiene theory and includes the job environment. The hygiene factors include: the company, its policies and its administration, the kind of supervision which people receive while on the job, working conditions interpersonal relations, salary, status, and Security These factors do not lead to higher levels of motivation but without them there is dissatisfaction. The second part of Herzbergs motivation theory involves what people actually do on the job (www.businessballs.com, 2010). The motivators are: achievement, recognition, growth / advancement and Interest in the job. These factors result from internal generators in employees, yielding motivation rather than movement. Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum of dissatisfaction. Use people so they get achievement, recognition for achievement, interest, and responsibility and they can grow and advance in their work. (www.businessballs.com, 2010) Therefore, the hygiene and motivation factors can be listed as follows: Hygiene Company policies and administration Supervision Working conditions and interpersonal relations Salary, status and security Achievement Recognition for achievement Interest in the task Responsibility for enlarged task Growth and advancement to higher level tasks The entire project team proposed this motivation theory and by following it, the team members will be well motivated and do well in their job. Regarding the motivation theory, some of factors are not for motivate team member such as the kind of supervision which people receive while on the job, working conditions and interpersonal relations. But if without those factors, the team member wills dissatisfaction. The project manager and entire project team follow the motivation factors that define by Herzberg to motivate team member, such as recognition when a team member success in certain task, he or she will recognize by the team member. (www.businessballs.com, 2010) Besides, motivate the team member by show interest in their job will have great improvement for them to archive their task. Since they have interest on their job, they will put in more effort and do their work better. MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO FAMO TEAM MEMBERS For the project team of Samson Travels agency, just apply motivation theory is not enough. There must have some of techniques to increasing motivation because motivation is better than offering gifts and compensation. Get Team Member Onboard: One of the biggest mistakes that the Project manager make is that they come up with their objective without including the team in the process. The more you involve your employees in decision making the more apt theyll be to give it their all. If youve already identified the objective on your own, then ask employees how to achieve it. However, in this project team employees are carried along in order to prevent the mistakes that might lead to the failure of the project. Work challenge: In situations whereby the project manager gives a job to a particular team member, the manager would challenge him to submit it during a period of time. If he manages to complete the task within that period of time, the project manager will offer some benefits to that team member. Find out What Drives Them: Treat each member as an individual and determine what motivates them, and its not always money. There have been all sorts of studies that show if you throw more money at the situation, and then all theyll do is come to expect it. A good way to determine an employees motivation is to simply sit down with them one-on-one and ask them directly what gets them going. As stated above, this techniques been applied in the Samson travels agency project team in order to motivate the entire project. Offer Positive Feedback All the team members get a charge from stepping into the spotlight. Its important when youre working in a team to acknowledge people in a public way, hold recognition sessions frequently to keep everyone enthusiastic and on track. Listen Up: Nothing will deflate the team member bubble than not being heard. Sometimes leaders do all the talking and no one likes one-sided meetings. Through meeting, Project manager can get some opinion or suggestion from the team members.

Night :: essays research papers

Throughout history During World War II, millions of European Jews suffered and died at the hands of Adolf Hitler and his anti-Semitic Nazi regime. In the historical fiction Night, the author Elie Wiesel, portrays to the readers the emotional truth behind the Holocaust, based on his experience. He insists: â€Å"The only role I sought that of witness. I believed that, having survived by chance, I was duty bound to give meaning to my survival, to justify each moment of my life.† He opens our eyes and touches our hearts as he takes us to Eliezer’s psychological journey, as the Holocaust robs him of his faith in God and exposes him to the deepest inhumanity of which man is capable. Thus, the author wants us to understand the importance of learning from the tragedy that was the Holocaust: â€Å"The Holocaust, shows that how people think and act needs revision in the face of those facts, unless one wishes to continue the same blindness that produced the darkness of Night. Yet failure to use the Holocaust to call all of humankind into question diminishes the chances to mend the world.† Eliezer started out as religious and studious young man who possessed a strong sense of tradition and faith, as well as being deeply interested in Jewish mysticism. When asked why he prays to God, he answered, â€Å"Why did I pray? A strange question. Why did I live? Why did I breathe?† His belief in God was unconditional. However, his confidence in God diminishes as he is faced with the truth of what lies ahead for them: "Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed. Never shall I forget the little faces of the children, whose bodies I saw turned into wreaths of smoke beneath a silent blue sky. Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith forever†¦ Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust.† This notion is also well illustrated by the author when he describe the hanging of three Auschwitz prisoners – one of them a child.

Art of Loving Response

In Response to The Art of Loving In The Art of Loving, Erich Fromm asks the question â€Å"is love an art? † In an effort to answer this question, he identifies, discusses, and analyzes the different objects of love. Fromm states that loving as an art means that one must love all objects, rather than only loving the â€Å"right† one (43). For this reason, the objects that he analyzes include brotherly love, motherly love, erotic love, self-love, and the love of God. When analyzing each object to explain his statement, Fromm tends to use broad generalizations about society, which do not cover all circumstances.In this essay, I will identify and address the areas where Fromm makes sweeping, inappropriate generalizations about society, as well as acknowledge his accurately fitting descriptions. The first object of love that Fromm identifies is brotherly love, defined as the love for all people as equals. Fromm feels that this is the most fundamental type of love because of its â€Å"lack of exclusiveness†. Fromm defines a brother to be equivalent to the neighbor mentioned in The Golden Rule from the Bible, which states, â€Å"love thy neighbor as thy self (44). Not all of society grew up learning The Golden Rule; therefore, this sweeping statement does not explain all relationships within society. Instead, Fromm should have said that brotherly love is based on one who respects and understands his neighbor and friend as an equal. This explanation could apply to many more relationships within society. Even though I was raised a Catholic, not all love relationships relate to those from the Bible. Any non-believers may also agree. This refutes Fromm’s statement that the brotherly love found within the Bible is fundamental for all relationships.Fromm defines motherly love as absolute and unconditional. He considers this love to be â€Å"the highest kind of love, and the most sacred of all emotional bonds† (Fromm 47). A mother loves t he growing child and wishes for his separation from her. She guides him and facilitates this separation so the child may flourish and grow on his own in the world (Fromm 48). Fromm goes further and relates the nurturing ability of a mother to God’s nurturing of man in the Biblical creation story (Fromm 46).Once again, not all of society grew up with a Biblical, Christian background. Those who are not familiar with the creation story or do not believe that God created the world fail to understand the correlation. Even though this is just one example, Fromm fails to sympathize with those people who come from a non-Christian background. The third type of love that Fromm very clearly and accurately discusses is erotic love. Erotic love is the â€Å"craving for complete fusion† with another person.This illusive type of love becomes easily confused with the act of â€Å"falling† in love, except it includes an act of will and physical attraction (Fromm 49). Frommâ€⠄¢s description accurately addresses the ideas that erotic love can be easily dissolved since it is based solely on attraction. I agree that true love includes more than pure physical attraction; it involves a decision, a judgment, and a promise as well as an attraction. I really appreciate Fromm’s statement that love is not just a feeling. Feelings can come and go and there is no way to promise a feeling for forever.This hints to the reason for a decision and a judgment along with the promise in marriage. This is true and evident in our society because marriages normally do not last unless there is another attraction between those in the couple besides a physical one. The next topic the Fromm discusses is self-love, which provides the idea that one must love themselves before one can love others. As Fromm states it: The affirmation of one’s own life, happiness, growth, freedom is rooted in one’s capacity to love, i. e. , in care, respect, responsibility, and kn owledge.If an individual is able to love productively, he loves himself too; if he can love only others, he cannot love at all. (55-56) He makes a point to mention that self-love and selfishness are counterparts, in that self-love creates happiness and selfishness only leads to frustration. Fromm notes that selfishness originates from the hatred of oneself and, in return, that person wants everything in the world (56). I agree with Fromm’s description that self-love is the first step in loving others, however, I disagree that selfishness is the complete opposite of self-love.Selfishness, rather, is the result of loving oneself too much to the extent that one thinks they deserve everything in the world; everything is to their disposal and no one else’s. Fromm fails to address this extreme, yet he does a justifiably sufficient job at explaining the importance of self-love. Self-love sets the basis for all relationships because it is difficult to love another person witho ut loving oneself first. The last object of love that Fromm discusses for the longest extent is the love of God.He states that there is no way of â€Å"loving† God, but rather believing in a â€Å"unity† with Him. God is a symbol of justice, love, and truth instead of an actual being (Fromm 72). Therefore, those who love God have faith in an ultimate unity (Fromm 73). Having grown up in a Catholic school, I agree with Erich Fromm’s analysis. God is not a being and the only way to discuss the reality of such a symbol is to discuss what He is not. God is not a father. God is not a mother. He loves similarly to both, but He isn’t a physical mother or father.Also, because He is not a being it is difficult to say that one can â€Å"love† Him. Therefore, believing in God is the same as loving God; however, there are different maturity levels to which one â€Å"loves† God. As one grows older and learns more about God, one may become closer to Him. This â€Å"growing closer† and â€Å"maturity† correlates to the strength of one’s belief and trust in Him. I can relate to this section since I am a raised Catholic, however, an atheist or non-Christian may not understand why this section is necessary for Fromm to discuss in order to answer his original question.Atheists, for example, do not have a being or god to love or believe in. In The Art of Loving, Erich Fromm raises the question, â€Å"is love an art? † To answer his question, Fromm identifies and analyzes the objects of love from erotic love to the love of God. In this response, I identified the areas where Fromm includes broad generalizations about society and acknowledged his appropriate analyses about love. Works Cited: Fromm, Erich. The Art of Loving. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. Print.

the 1940s Essays

the 1940s Essays the 1940s Essay the 1940s Essay 2004. Web. 19 May 2013.. Invention. Duct Tape. N. p. , n. d. Web. 19 May 2013.. Dirks, Tim. Film History of the 1940s. Film History of the 1940s. N. p. , n. d. Web. 19

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack Rome with a Christian Face? Early Byzantine Art 330–527 The discussion of Byzantine art represents a challenge for the researcher. The main issue about Byzantine art is that it demonstrates incompliance with the traditional chronologically-based methodologies of art. Standardly perceived as the art of â€Å"religious icons†, Byzantine art can be defined as the religious art spanning a period of thousand years from 330 to 1453 and centering in the Christian society of Constantinople (Cormack 2).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a way, Byzantine art is timelessness: Christian themes are constant and unchanging throughout its periods. The change and development occurred via new forms of expression and new subjects. The key feature of Byzantine art is that it is mostly religious. The Bible was the main source of inspiration, and mo st objects of art created at that time were considered sacred. Constantinople was the place that played a dominated role in the history of Byzantine art. It was brought to glory as a large metropolis according to the ambitious plan of emperor Constantine. Kilometers of protective walls and aqueducts built by 330 made Constantinople an impregnable stronghold that attracted new citizens by its broad spacious streets. Due to many disastrous fires and gales, the city changed its face repeatedly throughout history, and gradually gained the reputation of a â€Å"collage city† (Cormack 9). Masterpieces were brought to Constantinople from all over Greece and Asia Minor. But the unique feature of Byzantine art proper was that it never used the classical Greek works of art as a sample for imitation. Although Constantinople is mostly associated with the life of Christian society, the city was not established as Christian initially. Started as a typically Roman base with a hippodrome for chariot races, it gradually evolved into a Christian shrine, when a vast collection of holy relics was brought from Jerusalem and St Sophia Cathedral was designed as the center of the Christian empire. Therefore, Christian art as such did not originate in Constantinople. It flourished already in the third century all around the Roman empire, which can be illustrated by the wall paintings in the mud-brick houses of Syria (Cormack 13). The schematic manner of presentation in those paintings is rather traditional. But the innovatory issues are traced in the subject matter which is Christian: the paintings feature motifs of death and salvation from the Old and the New Testament. The Christians of the time used art as a way of communicating their main ideas on life after death. Consequently, scenes including Jonah image were especially popular because Jonah’s rescue from the wale’s inside reminded of Christ’s resurrection from sepulcher (Cormack 14).Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The early art in Byzantium preserved the images of imperial Rome, as well as continued developing the Christian traditions. Marble sarcophagi, reliefs, and statues were still parts of the city landscape. However, in the sixths century the art of sculpture experienced an overall decline, and marble was thus often recycled for building new Christian churches. Apart from marble, such materials were used as stone, brick, and wood. This diversity of materials was made possible by the breadth of Byzantine geographical borders: the empire spanned the territories of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestina, Egypt, North Africa, Italy, and much of the Balkans and Greece (Cormack 17). But this geographical variety was centralized and governed by the city of Constantinople which was the symbol of Byzantine power and control. The location of the Byzantine empire bot h in the east and in the west provided for the specific marriage of different traditions in Byzantine art. Such blend represents a stumbling block for art historians, since the issue of whether Byzantine art is separate from the western style or it developed according to standards common for both. The multifacetedness of Byzantine art makes it difficult to classify the art into self-contained periods. And yet, an attempt to classify early Byzantine art can be made basing on the key historical events: the rise of Constantinople under emperor Constantine (324–337), the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian (527–565), and the iconoclastic policy of emperor Leo III (717–741) (Cormack 18). In the difficult task of surveying the diversity of Byzantine art, the researchers face two extremes. On the one hand, there has been an immense loss of historical material due to natural disasters and hostility acts. On the other hand, the variety of the remaining mate rial may puzzle an unprepared observer by the kaleidoscope of time and places it covers. From this discrepancy emerges a problematic issue: â€Å"whether to treat all the different media and materials that Byzantine art employs together or separately?† (Cormack 21–22). Tracing each branch of Byzantine art in chronological order appears a complex problem, since many artists worked with several types of material simultaneously. In addition, old and new art was equally displayed in Byzantine reality, and therefore Byzantine art demonstrates a unique quality of continuity combining tradition and innovation. Demonstrative of the balance of continuity and change in Byzantine art are two samples of different time periods. The earlier sample is a â€Å"vast monumental mosaic†, the later one is a â€Å"small portable icon† (Cormack 23). At first sight, both of them appear to depict the same subject - Christian saints in heaven after their death. Saints are a univ ersal topic for Christian art, but the choice of specific saints for depiction may point out significant differences in the topic of the artwork.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Certain visual clues allow for distinguishing the two samples from each other. The enormous mosaic in the dome of the church is largely damaged, and the preserved part features seventeen figures. Despite the fact that the saints are named, there is no visible clue as to the logics of their arrangement. The central position in the mosaic was probably occupied by the figure of Christ surrounded by flying angels. An analysis of the possible thematic scope prompts the idea that the subject matter of the mosaic could be the Second Coming. This powerful image produced an unquestionable visual effect on the early Christians and signified the glory and triumph of the Christia n church over the ideas of the antiquity in the late fifth – early sixth century (Cormack 29–30). Representing a later period in Byzantine art, the small icon is â€Å"a work of art of a different form [†¦] and function† (Cormack 30). Similar to the mosaic in its subject matter, the icon represents a group of saints surrounding Christ. In contrast to the mosaic, Christ is depicted not at the moment of the Second Coming but as a baby sitting in his mother’s lap. The scene represented in the icon can be identified as the Sunday of Orthodoxy. Along with other figures, it features â€Å"iconophile champions† who struggled in 726–843 for recognition of icons as a symbol of the Orthodox church (Cormack 32). In this sense, the icon presents the topic of true and firm belief in the core values of the Orthodox church. In the Shadow of St. Sophia Byzantine Art in the Sixth Century and Its Aftermath 527–680 Despite the fact that the develop ment of Byzantine art may seem quite gradual, there existed several turning points that marked significant change. In the sixth century such crucial event occurred on the Christmas Day 537, when emperor Justinian dedicated the renovated church of St Sophia. Destroyed by fire in 532, the church was restored in record short period and demonstrated a qualitatively new interpretation of church symbolism. The new St Sophia was proclaimed â€Å"a holy place, a house of prayer, the assembly of the people, the body of Christ, [†¦] an earthly heaven [that] represents the Crucifixion, Burial, and Resurrection of Christ† (Cormack 37). Symbolic of so many Christian values, St Sophia was the heart of Constantinople and a place for public and state contemplation of God. In its interiors, scenes and events from the New Testament were reenacted and thus provided a powerful historical link and revival of the Biblical narratives. The peculiarity of St Sophia interior of the time was that, unlike the latter trends in decoration, it did not contain any figurative mosaics. Rather, the presence of God was visualized by more objective and universal symbols: the sign of cross was repeated over and again in golden colors. There could be several reasons for such simple yet efficient solution. On the one hand, the restoration of St Sophia had to be completed in shortest terms, and avoiding complicated mosaics saved time and effort.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, if there had been any figurative images, the viewer’s gaze would stop on each individual scene and not perceive the overall grandeur of the church. St Sophia indeed impresses by its sizes: about 56 meters high, 30 meters wide, and 60 meters long, the building’s nave was much broader than that of a typical Gothic cathedral (Cormack 40). As for the interior decoration of St Sophia, in the sixth century it was characterized by especial lightness and freshness that resulted from absence of heavy figurative mosaics. Only eight porphyry columns were left, and the walls were covered with veined marble. Carved monograms of emperor Justinian and empress Theodora spread all over the colonnades. Although attention was definitely given to details, the moderateness of the embellishment signifies shortness of time for the church restoration. The main decorative function was therefore placed on the sculptural carvings. The attention, effort, and finance invested in the renovation of St Sophia by emperor Justinian emphasize the significant role church played in the political life of the time. After a series of successful military campaigns, the Byzantine empire stretched out immensely and was in need of powerful controlling mechanisms, of which morale was the key factor. Following the experience of the Romans, Justinian realized that not only administrative and legal system should be universal for all, but also the common religious creed mattered. Thus the stronghold of Christianity as a guiding religion for the empire was emphasized in the newly revived St Sophia in Constantinople. With the emergence of St Sophia as the central church which outshone the others by its splendor and grandeur, there still remained the tradition of pilgrimage to holy places. One of the most significant locations personally for emperor Justinian was the church of the Archangel Michael at Germia in Asia Minor (Cormack 45). It contained a grand ivory carving of Archa ngel Michael, presumably Justinian’s patron throughout his life. The prayer on the carving symbolized the emperor’s humility in face of the divine power. To commemorate his deceased wife Theodora, emperor Justinian built another masterpiece of Byzantine art, a fortified monastery of St Catherine on the Egyptian mount of Sinai. A popular destination for pilgrims already in the fourth century, mount Sinai was an ideal place for monks to retire from the vanities of the world and spend time in prayer and worship of God. The Sinai church, a wooden-roofed basilica, was surrounded by high walls and guarded by armed garrison. As a symbol of divine protections, multiple crosses were carved in the walls. The interior of the Sinai church itself was changed with the time, but in the sixth century it was mostly dominated by carvings and mosaics. The latter depicted, inter alia, the biblical events mostly related to mount Sinai: Moses at the Burning Bush and Moses receiving the Tabl ets of the Law (Cormack 50). Bright colors and gold in which the images were performed nearly blinded the visitor and thus produced the maximum impact and inspired the feelings of profound veneration. The significance of Justinian’s rule for development of Byzantine art cannot be overestimated. Together with restoring St Sophia and reinforcing the Sinai monastery, emperor Justinian promoted Byzantine art on the western borders of the Byzantine empire. The location most demonstrative of the emperor’s involvement is the north Italian city of Ravenna. Initially supporting the Arian branch of the Christian religion, the city could boast a spectacular mosaics in the church of S. Apollinare Nuovo. The enormous scale of Biblical events depicted in the mosaics can be imagined by realizing that only a small part of it contained already twenty-six scenes from Christ’s life (Cormack 55). After the 540 conquest of Ravenna by Justinian’s army, the Arian politics of th e city experienced a radical turn. This was also reflected in the religious artworks: the depictions of the previous ruler were removed from S.  Apollinare Nuovo mosaics, and a large group of Orthodox saints was added instead. Another building embodying Byzantine imperial power and reflecting the ambitious aspirations of its rulers was the church of S. Vitale in Ravenna. Housing the relicts of the local martyr Vitalis, the building reflected many of Byzantine art characteristic. On the one hand, the marble columns of the church resembled many of the kind made of the same material in Constantinople. On the other hand, the church of S. Vitale contains powerful images of most influential Byzantine emperor and empress, which adds an additional link between Constantinople and the western borders of the empire. The two mosaics depict emperor Justinian and empress Theodore who had actually never been to Ravenna. But their presence and participation in the liturgy is emphasized by the obj ects they are carrying: Justinian is holding bread and Theodora bears a goblet of wine, which played a crucial role in Orthodox ceremony. Despite of the effort emperor Justinian took to build and maintain the grandeur of his vast empire, his creation did not survive for long. But the consequences of his rule for Byzantine art were significant. The culture of monks flourished; churches and monasteries were generously sponsored and thus survived the crisis of the Dark Ages (Cormack 65). This emergence of monasteries as keepers of the Byzantine culture allowed for efficient replacement of whatever artworks were lost with new ones. A popular medium of expression was found in painted icons, and multiple prescriptions and canons of depiction appeared depending on the view of Christ by the clergy. The large number of icons signifies the transition to a more personal kind of emotional involvement with prayer and worship. The Definition of an Orthodox Christian Empire Byzantine Art 680â€⠀œ843 The peculiarity of studying Byzantine art is connected with the fact that the transformations occurring in art are deeply rooted in the reconsideration of the social functions of art. The situation is further complicated by the issue of especial timelessness of Byzantine artworks and their stylistic ambiguity. Therefore, Byzantine art cannot be considered from position of style change alone. The flowering of religious art in the time of emperor Justinian’s rule can thus be explained by the significant social function performed by Byzantine art of the time. The especial realism of icons in Justinian’s time was called to bring the Biblical meanings and messages closer to the average people. A system of visual and written clues would provide clear hints for even the illiterate to recognize certain saints. The latter would usually possess significant distinctive features or attributes. An especial significance was placed on the way the saints looked at the viewer: th e gaze was by large one of the main composites of the icon and reflected the popular belief about protection from the evil eye (Cormack 77). After emperor Justinian had died, there is observed a decrease in the quantity of artwork. However, the significance of art in everyday life for prayer and instruction. The debatable issue that emerged was that the abundance of icons challenged the authority of the saints and lead to the increasing importance of the icons proper. Gradually, a view was adopted that â€Å"icons were not made by hand† (achieropoietos) but rather appeared miraculously and thus represented the healing powers and protection of Christ (Cormack 77). Among the most outstanding examples of such achieropoietos were the Mandylion of Edessa at Sinai, the mosaic of Christ in the church of Hosios David at Thessaloniki, and the Kamouliana icon of Christ in Cappadocia (Cormack 77–78). One of the situations that had a crucial impact on the development of Byzantine art was the rise and expansion of Islam. Initially taken as just another occurrence of heresy by the Byzantines, Islam actually had much more lasting and deep consequences for Byzantine art. Along with the military confrontation, a surprising blending and cooperation between the two cultures could be observed. One of the demonstrative examples of such cooperation is the mosaic of the Great Mosque at Damascus that uses ornaments similar to those in the Christian Rotunda in Thessaloniki (Cormack 79–80). In addition, the Islamic leaders coined money which closely resembled Byzantine monetary standards. This cultural cooperation was significantly damaged when around 692 emperor Justinian II reformed the design of Byzantine gold nomisma: the obverse featured the face of Christ, while the emperor’s image occupied a secondary position on the reverse (Cormack 80). In reply, all imagery on Islamic coins was substituted by koranic verses. These events first brought the image of Christ in the secular sphere of money. A second version of Byzantine coin was made after Justinian II had recaptured the throne in 705, and Christ was depicted very unconventionally there: without a nimbus and with a very short beard. The two Byzantine coins bore not only a religious message but that of social and political significance. The first one represented a â€Å"distinctive Byzantine Orthodox identity in face of Islam and other rivals†; the second one emphasized Justinian II’s message that â€Å"Byzantium stood for good order in every aspect of life† (Cormack 81). The coins served as signs of national and cultural identification of the Byzantine people. The other situation that entailed grave consequences on the course of Byzantine art of the time was the way the church responded to the changing social and political environment. A determining event occurred in 692 when the Quinisext Council adopted over a hundred canons, most of which defined the furthe r development and social functioning of Byzantine art. Thus, for example, the image of cross was prohibited to be placed on the floor; Christ should be represented not in symbols but in His own form (Cormack 82). Thus, together with a generally positive attitude to icons as significant part of Orthodox Christianity, the Council also demonstrated the need for control over the iconic form and content. It is not difficult to see a political motive underlying such attitude: the orderly life in the Christian Byzantine empire was inseparable from the compliance of Christ’s image to the demands of clear representation. In the situation of increasing state control over the form and content of religious images, a point was reached when counter reaction was quite inevitable. During most of the eighth century and the first half of the ninth century, the art of icon painting was trapped between two contradictive extremes. On the one pole, there were the ideas of iconoclasm that called to destruction of icons. The ideas of iconoclasm were formulated in 754 during the Council of Hieria. Basing on the quote from the Bible, a second commandment given to Moses that disapproved of any graven image, the Council ruled that icons should be announced illegitimate (Cormack 87). Thus they solved the issue of paganism and its residuals in the Christian Byzantium. On the other pole, there were the ideas of iconophiles, who assembled in 787 at the Council of Nicaea and ruled that veneration of icons did not possess an idolatrous nature and therefore could be allowed (Cormack 87). Against this background, a fierce dispute unfolded between the two opposing groups. Unfolding not only in theory, but also in practice, the iconoclastic activities involved destruction of iconic images from such significant object of Byzantine art as St  Sophia in Constantinople and many others. The gold mosaics of St Sophia representing images of Christ and saints were ruthlessly scraped off and icons were taken down (Cormack 94). It should be noted, however, that the attacks of iconoclasts concerned not the art as such but the nature and social purpose. The art continued to be produced but simply in smaller quantities and a different quality. A bright example of iconoclastic art can be found in the church of St  Eirene in Constantinople. After an earthquake in 740, it was restored with mosaics featuring religious texts and the shape of the cross. Thus the main feature of iconoclastic art was avoiding any representation of the image of Christ and saints and substituting those images with the symbol of life-giving cross. Another illustration of iconoclasm in art can be seen in the Khludov Psalter of mid-ninth century. The earliest collection of illustrated psalms, this book contains images symbolic of the prolonged struggle between iconoclasts and iconophiles. This struggle for icons has been the key feature of Christian Orthodox church identity ever since. Developments and Div ersions in the Consolidated Empire Middle Byzantine Art 843–1071 As iconoclasm was defeated in 843, the Byzantine art witnessed a period of revival and restoration of the holy icon. The mutual support between the church and the state was unprecedented: the Byzantine empire was once again restored as a state ruled by order and certainty drawn from firm Christian belief. Such attitude is laid out in emperor Constantine VII’s written piece The Book of Ceremonies (Cormack 105). Monasteries flourished once again as places of active struggle against iconoclasm, and the role of monks in this struggle was radically reconsidered. Although the model for psalm books was still the Khludov Psalter of the ninth century, the pictures of Patriarch Nikephoros as a vigorous iconophile are replaced with those of the monk St Theodore (Cormack 106). Such substitution evidences the shift of significance from patriarch to monk in struggle against iconoclasm. The two hundred years starting fr om mid-ninth centuries are described by art historians as a second â€Å"Golden Age† of Byzantine art, or â€Å"Macedonian Renaissance† (Cormack 108). Those definitions apply mostly to the especially wide range of artworks and techniques created and developed throughout the period. After the dark times of iconoclasm, the innovations of Macedonian Renaissance appeared more as return to the past traditions of Byzantine art. The latter were significantly expanded by new themes and approaches. An example can be seen in the Paris Psalter of mid-tenth century, where - unlike the Khludov Psalter - emphasis is made on the textual contents. Apart from psalms and illustrations to them, the Paris Psalter includes a vast theological and scholarly commentary on the sacred texts (Cormack 109). As the renaissance period was market by return to pre-iconoclastic tradition, it becomes easy to trace connections between the pre- and post-iconoclastic artworks and note the innovations in the latter. Thus, for example, the post-iconoclastic mosaics of Koimisis monastery at Nicaea is performed in a traditional technique. But differently colored materials and differently sized cubes in faces and clothes prompt that it was created already after the struggle against iconoclasm. Another instance of merging tradition and innovation is seen in the art of coinage. The iconoclast emperor Leo III rejected the Christian imagery of money coined by Justinian II and ordered that both the obverse and the reverse of the coin represent a portrait of an emperor. In mid-ninth century, emperor Michael III started coining money with the image of Christ on the obverse. The idea was not a mere allusion to the coin design of Justinian II. Every line copied the old version and the inscription â€Å"Jesus Christ† dispelled any doubt as to the image presented on the coin (Cormack 114). Thus, the coin design became a powerful declaration of return to the past. In this period of revival and consolidation, not only the old themes and styles were restored but also the connection with the eastern parts of the Byzantine empire was emphasized. Emperors brought items from the legendary east to their palaces and openly placed them for general admiration. Such was the throne of Solomon, surrounded by golden lions, birds, and trees; according to legends, the lions would roar and the birds would sing when the emperor was sitting on the throne. The solution of this mystery could be that there was an organ built in the throne to produce the amazing sounds. The idea for the throne presumably originated from the court of Persia (Cormack 115). In addition to the technology of organ-building, the emperor court and the church often used such oriental inventions as Persian silk draperies, as well as elements of Arabic writing. The Byzantine empire was once again open and welcoming other cultures. After the radical stripping the St Sophia church off its mosaics by the iconoclasts, a new look corresponding to the new vision of religious art had to be given to the building which was the center of Christian empire. Provided the amount of expertise, time, and work required by the large-scale projects, the efforts of patriarch Photios cannot be overestimated. His speech on the dedication of the first mosaic in St Sophia after iconoclasm, Virgin and the Child, is demonstrative by its deep intellectual analysis. Photios emphasized the double significance of Mary’s image both as â€Å"lifelike imitation† and â€Å"real archetype† and interpreted it as a reminder of salvation and necessity of reverence to God (Cormack 119–120). Other mosaics of the church featured essentially timeless scenes from the Bible and at the same time reflected the events of the period, immortalizing the prominent patriarchs and emperors of the time. Important accents were placed on the kind of relations between emperors and God. Humility, repentance in face of God, and generosity were the key qualities to be demonstrated by ideal Byzantine emperors and depicted in various mosaics of St Sophia. Thus, the main social norms of the time were established through art which once again proved an excellent means of communication. To any of the visitors, the artistic decorations of St Sophia clearly represented a picture of the contemporary cultural and political state of Byzantine society. In the case of historical analysis of art, the term ‘renaissance’ is mostly applied to the period of Italian art between fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Justification of Macedonian Renaissance faces the issue of whether artworks created at that time were recreations of the classical samples or whether they were innovations based on the knowledge of classical and Christian art. Compared to Italian art radical revolution towards the standards of the Ancient Greece and Rome that was based on close study of authentic ancient texts, the Byzantine knowledg e of its past art was scarce. The aggressive period of iconoclasm by large destroyed a big share of classical Byzantine art and left scarce traces of it for the coming generations. Instead of merely copying the classical samples, Byzantine artists of the tenth century rather handled the new techniques they developed against the background of classical values and ideas. The New Spirituality of the Eleventh Century and the World of the Twelfth Century After the triumphant revival Byzantine art experienced with the defeat of iconoclasm, Orthodox faith found its expression through a vast range of artistic means. The church of St Sophia was redecorated by mosaics of unprecedented scope, and Constantinople was as always dictating its will to the rest of the empire. In such situation there emerges an issue of whether Constantinople was an artistic center ever since the fall of iconoclasm and whether the provinces had any artistic traditions of their own. On the one hand, monasteries and ch urches were built and decorated all over the Byzantine empire, which evidences that cultural interest was not concentrated in the capital city only. On the other hand, it often occurred that artists from Constantinople were invited to remote areas for design and decoration of buildings, which emphasizes the exclusive nature of contemporary artistic knowledge and skills. Such materials as ivory, silk, mosaics, and enamels have traditionally been ascribed to Constantinople artisans. In certain rare cases, such as with the city of Thessaloniki, the province had the means to support and develop its own workshops. But still if attention is turned to details, dominance and prevalence of Constantinople artwork is traced in many locations. Such is the case with the church of St Sophia in Sinai: the style of figures and mosaics is similar to that represented in Constantinople. On the other hand, the interior of other churches in the region suggests a cooperation between the capital and local artists. If Byzantine art is to be considered as that exceeding the borders of Constantinople only, this attitude is supported by examples of churches found in rural areas of Asia Minor and Cappadocia (Cormack 149). Whatever the case may be, the triumphant position of the Orthodox church at period discussed facilitated quantitative and qualitative intensification in art production. One of the most significant changes of the was the transformation of the church sanctuary. In early Byzantine churches, the division between spaces for the clergy and for the laypeople was purely symbolical, not more than a humble barrier (Cormack 150). However, after the defeat of iconoclasm, the meaning and importance of the sanctuary increased dramatically, and so did the artwork decorating the place. A screen called templon was set up to divide the areas for laypeople and the places where bread and wine were kept (Cormack 151). In the centre of the screen the Royal Doors were situated, through which the priest would bring out the bread and wine symbolizing the body and blood of Christ. This screen developed through centuries and was gradually covered with an increasing amount of icons that would forever cover the sanctuary from the eyes of the laypeople. Such development of the sanctuary screen naturally required an unprecedented amount of icons to be made and venerated. Apart from the templon, icons were used on the adjacent walls and shrines dedicated to individual saints. Icons of the latter were created according to the following scheme: in the center of the icon, the key scene from the saint’s life was depicted and surrounded by smaller images of biographical moments. The daily calendar of the church also had to be illustrated with icons, and this was done either by separate icon for each occasion or by calendar icons including sets of several monthly icons (Cormack 152). During the period from ninth to fourteenth century, the quantity of icons on the sanctuary incr eased dramatically and had a double effect on the perception of the religious sacrament. On the one hand, the shield of icons increased the mystery over the sanctuary and the altar of the church. On the other hand, the images of the icons brought the divine holiness closer to laypeople and made it more understandable for them. Step by step, icons transformed their initial meaning from illustrations of religious history into visual aids directly incorporated in the liturgy. Icons of the eleventh and twelfth centuries reflect a gradual change to their nature and meaning: for the first time, the heavenly ladder is depicted and thus the ideas of divine light and salvation are promoted. One of the peculiarities of the period was the separation of monasteries from the church headed by the ‘secular’ patriarch. Emotional and social life of contemporary Byzantium was dominated by monasteries that gave refuge to those who wanted to follow Christ’s life on earth. The societ y delegated the task of worshiping God to monasteries and generously endowed them for it. Since in Christian Orthodox practice, art was the way â€Å"to assist and enhance spiritual experience†, monasteries played a central role in developments of art at that time (Cormack 158). Emperors patronized monasteries, and one of the brightest examples of it was the 1136 monastery of Christ Pantokrator. Comprising three churches, a hospital, an old people’s home, and a leprosarium, the monastery could boast interiors decorated with marble, stained glass, and mosaics. Hosting such relics as a stone on which Christ’s body supposedly rested after Crucifixion, and the prestigious icon of Virgin Hodigitra, the monastery attracted pilgrims and their generous donations (Cormack 161). For the purpose of understanding the ways Christian Byzantine art developed outside Constantinople and its suburbs, it is instructive to consider Christian monasteries that functioned in Greece du ring the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greek Hosios Lukas monastery comprised three churches (Theotokos church, katholikon, and the crypt church). The peculiar features of the first church are the lion-headed gargoyles on the dome and the pseudo-Arabian decorations of the exterior. The katholikon is filled with marble sarcophagi and decorated with multiple wall paintings that provided a less time-consuming substitute for mosaics. The crypt church is thematically connected with the images of katholikon: the katholikon mosaic of Doubting Thomas is copied in the crypt wall painting (Cormack 165–167). In another Greek monastery, Daphni, a certain semblance in decoration types may be traced with Hosios Lukas. However, the depiction style is different: the figures are more natural and less generalized. Such minor variations suggest that the ways of depiction varied depending on the immediate needs of a given religious community. The political situation around the Byzantine em pire had changed dramatically during the two centuries. The Christian world faced the opposition between the Orthodox and the Latin church. Byzantines were driven from Italy by the Normans. Princes of Kiev established their own powerful state of Kiev Rus’. Serbian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian people demonstrated autonomous tendencies as well. However, despite the gradual loss of territorial influence, the Byzantine empire managed to extend its existence by introducing its art forms and techniques to the rest of the world. Samples of Byzantine art were created in Spain, Kiev Rus’, and Italy, which helped to preserve Byzantine culture by marrying it to that of western Europe. Art in the Service of a Failing Society Late Byzantine Art 1204–1453 The event that defined the fate of Byzantine art in its late period was the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in April 1204. A mass transportation of Byzantine artworks started to western Europe. Relics of Christian r eligion were moved from churches where they originally reposed to churches and monasteries of Italy and France. Sculptures, vessels, enamels, books, chalices, reliefs, and many other works of art were exported from the Byzantine republic to royal residences. By the time Louis XIV came to the throne, the Louvre could boast a vastest collection of precious Byzantine vessels (Cormack 187). At the same time, the ransacked court in Constantinople struggled to preserve at lease something of its former glory. The notable issue about the western invasion into the Byzantine empire was that on the one hand, the western people were charmed and mesmerized by masterpieces of Byzantine art which they had previously known only by copies. On the other hand, quite paradoxically, most of the innovations the westerners brought to Byzantium were totally disconnected with the historical culture of the land. The church of St Sophia in Constantinople was converted for Catholicism and left deteriorating. T he new monasteries were built prevalently in western style. The cooperation of the east and the west can be traced only in the creations of Crusaders. Their mosaics, paintings, and manuscripts were therefore crucial for the development of Byzantine art in its late period. An example of mixture between western and eastern artistic styles and content can be seen in the iconic triptych from Sinai, including the scene of Coronation of the Virgin. Initially, coronation was a western procedure, and placing the Virgin on the throne next to Christ contradicted the principles of Orthodox Christianity (Cormack  190). The process of assimilation of the other culture was experienced by both the eastern and the western artists which makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish who was the real author of an artwork. After the historical events of the early thirteenth century, the Byzantine society faced a choice: whether to stick to the established traditions of Byzantine art or assimilate new i deas and techniques that came from the west. Since contacts with the west became part of daily routine in the life of Byzantine empire, the latter option appeared more likely to follow. Against this background of continuous cultural contact, the church was trying to assume a reasonable position. A profound discussion unfolded on such controversial issues of Christian religion as papal primacy, purgatory, and others (Cormack 194). Western theological works were closely studied in Byzantium and provoked some of the Byzantine people’s disappointment in Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism. Byzantine society was torn between two extremes: anti-papists on the one hand and disillusioned intellectuals on the other hand. In any case, the art of the time reflected the unstable situation where consistent positions were rarely followed. Being closely acquainted with the western achievements in Gothic and Renaissance art, Byzantine art consciously made its choice, either accepting or re jecting the foreign standards. There cannot be traced any distinct and consistent line of either following the western tradition or its denial in Byzantine art of the time. Means of expression and techniques varied greatly in this period of cultural crossroads. A significant feature of contemporary Byzantine art was its utmost religious emotionality and appeal. The loss of glory and prestige of Constantinople was a hard blow for the Byzantine empire, and the attempts to restore the former influence proved in vain (Cormack 198–199). With the return of grand court and patriarch to Constantinople in 1261, there emerged a new hope for restoring the empire. Much effort was put into collecting and displaying the artifacts of the glorious past which remained after the Crusaders invasion. The prior task for raising the prestige of the Byzantine capital was refurbishment of its major shrine, the church of St Sophia. An enormous mosaic, the Deisis, was made on the southern wall of the church (Cormack 201). Over five meters in height and six meters in width, this magnificent panel depicted Christ at the Second Coming and symbolized the restoration of the Byzantine empire to its former greatness. Together with the large scale of the mosaic, it impressed by an especial intimacy and naturalism with which the figures are performed. The delicate modeling of faces in the mosaic was a bright example of early western Renaissance style adapted by Byzantine artists. The Deisis mosaic represented an icon of extraordinary scale and was not the only representative of this large-scale genre. On the other hand, late Byzantine art also produced micro-mosaic panels that were not only used in Byzantine religious practices but also became collectors’ items among the western connoisseurs (Cormack 202–203). The late thirteenth century witnessed a peculiar innovation that resulted from artistic patronage of artworks. Thus, in Constantinople, the already existing monasteri es obtained new architectural structures and forms. The two brightest examples are the addition of a side-church to St Mary Pammakaristos and the rebuilding of the Chora Monastery (Cormack 204). The latter involved joint efforts of artists, architects, and church planners, who carried out their project by rearranging the vaults of the former katholikon, building an inner and outer narthex, and other modifications decisive for the new design. The main subject of the church were the cycles of the Life of the Virgin and the Infancy and Ministry of the Christ (Cormack  207). Focusing on salvation of the soul and significance of the Virgin, the cycles as such represent quite a traditional subject. However, this conventionality is touched up by certain innovatory findings. For one thing, the cycle contains a number of rare scenes from the life of the Virgin that had not been depicted in other locations. For another thing, different principles of perspective are used in this depiction th an in traditional western Renaissance art. Thus together with adherence to Byzantine tradition, the artwork in the Chora Monastery demonstrates latent innovation that was not to draw too much attention. The fourteenth century witnessed sufficient change in the art of iconography. The templon screen that covered the sanctuary gradually evolved into a whole iconostasis holding several layers of icons (Cormack 210). The range and complexity of the church interior cycles increased, as did the range of spiritual experience depicted in the icons. Another innovation was including the personal signature of the artist in the icon or wall painting. This tradition rooted in the western art which emphasized the growing social status of artists and presented their work as goods contesting for popularity among consumers. Although the Orthodox church discouraged such approach, artistic individuality and style became quite prominent during the period. An example of an outstanding icon painter can b e found in the figure of Theophanes the Greek who worked in Moscow and Novgorod. Cormack, Robert. Byzantine Art. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.